Charlemage

Charlemagne

There was relatively little commerce in Western Europe. Roads, bridges, and the infrastructure generally were non-existent. Furthermore, the countryside was unsafe for travel due to a lack of organized law enforcement. Small villages had to take care of themselves; therefore, manufacturing was carried on only to the extent that was needed to supply local needs.

In the little kingdoms or principalities, the lands over which a King ruled were regarded as no different from other property. Among the Franks, all sons were entitled to a share. Therefore, when a King died, each son became a King over his own little kingdom. Thus, many political units became small so there were no uniform laws or policies. This lack of unity made them vulnerable to enemies as well as conflict from within. Bullough points out that the loyalty of a warrior or subject to his chosen leader was not a light matter. The author does not contrast that concept of loyalty however, with our present ideas of loyalty to the homeland or institution.

"The apprenticeship of a King" describes how Charlemagne gained power through conquest and diplomacy. In 768, King Pippin died and his kingdom was divided between his two sons. Charles, the elder, and the younger was Carloman. The author says that little is known of Charles' boyhood. When he was of the right age, it is recorded that he worked eagerly at riding and hunting. It was the custom of the Franks to ride and be practiced in the use of arms and ways of hunting. We may reasonably infer that acquiring these skills formed a major part of his early education. Charles was not a "man of letters" and the author makes no attempt at explaining this other than to point out that literacy was considered unimportant at that time for anyone other than the clergy and Charles didn't become interested in "letters" until later in life. Bullough explains a number of experiences in public duties and responsibilities, which were assigned to Charles by his father, thus, giving him an apprenticeship to rule the kingdom. For some reason tension between Charles and his brother began shortly after their accession. The author explains a number of conflicts. The younger brother died however, at the end of 771 and a number of prominent people in his kingdom offered allegiance to Charles. Bullough names and explains those subjects. The result was the re-uniting of those territories, which helped to establish the kingdom of the Franks. The author describes in detail the military conquests of Charlemagne. The text includes maps of the territories and battlefields. It is stated that to some areas, Charles may have come as a liberator from the infidel yoke, but to many other peoples who bordered his dominions, Christian and Non-Christian alike, he was an oppressive enemy, like so many others before and after.

In 880, Pope Leo III called on Charles for assistance when he faced charges of simony, perjury, and adultery. Charles acted with careful deliberation when dealing with this matter. Charles was asked to preside over the Pope's hearing. He did so, and Leo was cleared of all charges. Two days later, Leo placed a crown on Charles head and proclaimed him Holy Roman Emperor. This gave Charles the "Devine Right to Rule" according to the Roman Church.

The author does not infer from any of this information. Personally, it seems that Charlemagne united an empire by conquest and ruled by the authority of the Pope. Bullough does not suggest that during this time the government and the church became so intervened that there were really one and the same. Having conquered an empire and established the "Devine Right to Rule", Charles then, according to Bullough, began to establish some uniformity within the empire. The ancient concept of public order had not been entirely destroyed by the invasion of barbarians within the empire. But, as law and order became weaker, its place was partly taken by the Churchmen's Nations of peace and right order. The author explains how Charles established a system of courts to see that justice was done to all free disputants and to protect widows and orphans. The author does not state any conclusions as to the results of the establishment of a uniform legal system.

Although Charles was not literate, he seems to have placed value in education. Bullough credits him with a revival of learning or a "Carolingian Renaissance". Charlemagne saw that education was in serious decline. So he gathered together at his court some of the finest minds of his day. He also sponsored monasteries where ancient books were preserved and copied. He reformed the palace school and saw that monastic schools were set up throughout the realm. The idea of learning was given a time and a place to flourish. The "Carolingian Renaissance" was an isolated phenomenon. Learning did not catch fire throughout Europe. Only in the royal court and monasteries was there any real focus on education. Yet because of Charles' interest in preserving and reviving knowledge, a wealth of ancient manuscripts was copied for future generations. Just as important, a tradition of learning was established in European monastic communities. These monasteries helped to overcome the threat of the extinction of Latin culture.

The Carolingian handwriting that evolved during Charlemagne's reign was developed to increase the legibility of the numerous manuscripts the monks turned out at this time. These small letters, known as "Carolingian Minuscule" became the basis of the lower case letters we use today. Ninety percent of the works of ancient Rome now in existence are preserved in the form of manuscripts copied in a Carolingian Monastery.

Bullough devotes much time to the areas on art and architecture during the Carolingian period. Included are photographs of buildings, which are standing, and in use today. There are also ground plan drawings of buildings and samples of other works of art. Being closely aligned with the church, it is not surprising that the major examples of Carolingian architecture are churches and Biblical illustrations make up much of the art. These are not the only works. There are also many secular works, such as "Charles and his Warriors".

Bullough tries to separate legend from reality. It seems that while Charles attempted to rekindle an interest in learning and unite various groups into one nation, he never addressed the economic difficulties that Europe faced now that Rome no longer furnished order. Although Charlemagne did devise the system of pounds, shillings and pence