Cross-Cultural Differences in Self-Concept

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Abstract

To gain clarification about the extend to which Asian and Western cultures differ in self concepts the following research question is formulated: Is there a difference in Western and Asian self-concepts? The findings confirm that there is a clear distinction between Western and Asian self-concepts. Asian self-concepts being in general more interdependent and collectivistic and Western cultures in general more independent and individualistic. In addition, the few studies that have been conducted to find the origin of differences in self concepts show that these differences are shaped by culture and that so far no innate constructions for self-concepts have been found. Further research about innate constructions will be greatly beneficial in leading us to understand our own behavior and to predict the behavior of others.

Introduction

The sense of self we have, also known as “self-concept” or “self-construal” is a

fundamental aspect in people’s everyday life. For example, when interacting with other people the self-concept plays an important role (Matsumoto, 1999). There are a lot of differences in self-concepts between people. Triandis (1989) and Markus and Kitayama (1991) renewed interest in how the self concept evolves and develops. Some say that the self-concept is predisposed by innate temperamental dispositions (McCrae, 1997) while others pointed out that there are cultural variations in self-concepts of people (Shweder, 1990).

Earlier research and theories show differences in self-concepts between American and

Asian people. Various studies (Bond & Cheung, 1983; Shweder & Bourne, 1984) asked participants to describe themselves. These studies show that American participants more often use traits to describe themselves while Asian participants tend to involve a larger context such as including family and friends when describing themselves. The self-concept individuals have, are very important in leading us to understand our own behavior and to predict the behavior of others. It does not occur often that we are consciously thinking about ourselves or who exactly we are. However, our self-concept has a big influence on the way we perceive and interpret the world and how we interact with the people around us. The self-concept is crucial in regulating all our feelings, understanding and thoughts we have about the world including the connections with the people and places within this world (Matsumoto, 1999).   A recognized anthropologist, Clifford Geertz (1975), defined the self concept as “a bounded, unique, more or less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action”. Our self-concept can be regarded as the root of our being.

The aim of my research is to find whether there is a difference in Western and Asian

self concepts and to discover if culture influences the formation of these self-concepts. I have chosen to do research about Western (specifically Australia and the United States), and Asian (specifically China, Japan, India, Malaysia, and Hong Kong) cultures since there is a big difference in self-concepts between the two cultures. This research is essential to gain more knowledge about the differences in people’s self concept between Western and Asian countries, which is important in leading us to understand our own behavior and to predict the behavior of others (Matsumoto, 1999).  To gain clarification about the extend to which the two cultures differ in self concepts the following research question is formulated: Is there a difference in Western and Asian self-concepts?

Main body

To answer the question: Is there a difference in Western and Asian self-concepts,

several comparative studies can be looked at showing a clear cultural pattern in American and Asian people’s self-concepts. According to a study conducted by Cousins (1989), participants from Japan and the United States had contrasting descriptions of themselves as individuals. Cousins applied the Twenty Statements Test in which participants had to write twenty answers to the question “Who am I?” in various social situations such as at home, in school, or at work. The outcome showed that American participants were more likely to characterize themselves with more personal trait labels and preferences and separation from others to describe themselves. Conversely, Japanese participants tend to come up with specific contexts in which they behaved in a certain way, such as social groups they belong to. These results fall into two categories: Cultures with a collectivistic view and cultures with an individualistic view. This study shows the individualistic character of the American culture and the collectivistic character of the Asian culture. Other researchers such as Markus and Kitayama (1991) have also divided Asian and Western cultures into two categories.

Markus and Kitayama (1991) made a clear distinction between Asian

and Western cultures by classifying two different senses of self: The western individualistic sense of self as an independent construal and a non-Western collectivistic self as an interdependent construal. With an independent construal of self people generally emphasize personal achievements, traits, goals, abilities, rights, etc. The self is independent from others in it’s surroundings such as friends, coworkers, and family. In contrast, many non-Western, collectivistic cultures concentrate on their connection with the people around them. In interdependent cultures individuals adjust to social groups in which they strive to have social responsibilities. The interdependent self is dependent on context nevertheless this does not mean that individuals from collectivist cultures with interdependent selves do not think about their personal achievements, traits, goals, abilities and rights (Matsumoto, 1999). Off course, not all Western and non-western cultures can be perfectly categorized into either

interdependent or dependent construal’s of self. Moreover, independent and interdependent construal’s of self can also vary within a culture. However, these categories can be used to emphasize the relationship between culture and self. More empirical evidence for the theory of Matsumoto (1999) was found by Triandis (1989). Triandis has conducted a study showing that individuals from interdependent cultures such as China, Japan, Malaysia etc. include themselves in more social categories and relationships with people than do people from individualistic cultures. A study conducted in the People’s Republic of China showed that 80% of the answers given to a self-description test were related to certain social groups they belonged to.