Education

The American Revolution created a republic that in theory placed sovereignty in the people rather than an elite, which in England was composed largely of a hereditary aristocracy and landed gentry. Republics, theorists stated, depended upon the wisdom and virtue of an educated populace. As early as the 1780s the founders of the United States argued that public education was essential for the prosperity and survival of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson in particular believed Americans should consider mounting a "crusade against ignorance." Jefferson was the first American leader to suggest creating a system of free schools that would be publicly tax-supported. However, Jefferson's plans for publicly funded universal education did not take root until the 1830s.

Education in the Early Nineteenth Century

Throughout much of the nineteenth century, many American children--regardless of race, class, or gender--did not attend school because they had to work or because their parents could not afford to pay the required fees. Those children who did become educated were taught at home by a parent or tutor, went to a school run by a church or charity, or attended a privately-run school. "Subscription schools" were supported by middle class families and charged a fee based on the number of children enrolled. The poor, if their children did attend school, had to sign documents stating that they were "paupers" in order for their children to be admitted to poverty schools. Most institutions provided schooling only for privileged white boys. A small number of young men could go on to one of several colleges established in America, such as Harvard or Yale, to receive a more substantial, often specialized, education.

By the 1830s, Americans expressed a desire to improve the existing educational system. Reformers found the lack of universal education unsuitable for a growing democracy. In 1846, attorney and politician Horace Mann, the father of American public education, argued that public education was an obligation, "a worthy public expense" that reaped substantial benefits for an emerging industrialized and urban society. Mann argued that a solid public education ultimately meant more productive workers. Americans also believed that citizens needed an education in order to participate fully in the political and economic growth of the country. Reformers argued that schools should be free, paid for by taxes and state supported.

Common schools, or publicly financed elementary schools, gradually emerged in the northeast and midwestern United States, although even by the mid-nineteenth century, no state had a statewide school system and local districts ineptly managed their own. In the South, few public schools existed before the Civil War. Public elementary schools provided basic instruction in reading, writing, and math, along with training in citizenship. The publication of the Reverend William Holmes McGuffey's Reader, which sold nine million copies between 1836 and 1850, augmented efforts to educate the masses. McGuffey's Reader emphasized reading, writing, spelling, and good manners.

Education of Blacks and Women Prior to the Civil War

Because of racial and gender discrimination, African Americans and women not only struggled to acquire an education but had to combat stereotypes concerning what type of education was most suitable for them. The 1800s witnessed important changes in their education. Prior to the Civil War, Catharine Beecher emerged as one of the most important advocates of female education, promoting it as preparation for women's role in expanding their power in the home and in teacher training.

Most Americans considered teaching as a natural extension of women's maternal role, moving them from the private to the public sphere. Yet some women saw teaching not as a "calling" but as a way in which to support themselves. Such was the case with African American feminist Maria Stewart, who taught school beginning in the 1830s after the death of her husband. Stewart later warmed to her new career and in 1853, opened a school for blacks in Washington, D.C.

Women's education and career options, especially for the middle and upper classes, were aided by the founding of academies and seminaries for girls. In 1821,