Politics In History

All throughout history, a wide variety of political systems have developed in different areas of the world. The majority of these systems has been guided by one or more fundamental principles, and has depended on the needs of the people, and the economic resources available to the country at the time. In this paper I will examine three early civilizations and the factors that guided the constitutions of the Roman republic, Ancient Japan, and medieval England, and how each of them related to each other.

When examining the constitution of the Roman Republic, it is evident that the goal of the government is to establish and maintain three separate divisions: the consuls, the Senate, and the People. The Romans were able to combine these three principal forms of government together to create a Republic, with the consuls serving as the monarchy, the Senate as the aristocracy, and finally, the people as the democracy. Each division of the government was meant to have power over specific areas, all of which are defined in the constitution. The Senate, for instance, mainly controlled financial dealings, while the consuls were in charge of all public affairs. The people, on the other hand, had jurisdiction over many of the decisions made in the government, namely those concerning judgments of war and peace. It is clear that the three divisions of the republic were used as a means of checks and balances, which allowed each branch to take notice of any discrepancies in either of the other two branches, and take whatever action was necessary against them in order to solve the matter.

The consuls of Rome, who were in charge of all public affairs, were given the duty of having to consider all matters of public concern which were to be decided by the people. This meant summoning assemblies, introducing those measures which required a vote, as well as having the authority over the decisions of the majority. Also within their power was the ability to control military affairs in the field. They were able to give commands to the allies that they deemed right, appoint military tribunes, levy soldiers, and choose the people they saw as fit for military service. They also had the power to distribute any public funds in a manner of their choosing, making them appear to be the dominating power in the Roman republic (Republic, par. 2). However, it was with the other two divisions of government that the Romans were able to nearly equally distribute power throughout.

The Roman Senate, which held the most authority in government, had control over many aspects of society. The most important of them was control of the treasury, which gave them access to all revenues and expenditures, including the most important expenditure of public funds which were made every five years for repair and construction of public works. Secondly, the Senate also had jurisdiction over any crimes in Italy that required a public investigation. This included, but was not limited to, treason, conspiracy, poisoning, and assassination. (Republic, par. 3)

The people of Rome were considered to be the most important and influential on the other two branches of government. They were given many rights, such as the authority to pass judgment in capital cases, grant offices to those deserving of it, and also the ability to ratify laws and deliberate whether or not Rome would go to war. Finally, they were able to approve the particulars of various military alliances, truces, and other treaties, making them valid or discarding them (Republic, par. 4).

Judging by the power of each division of the republic, it seems that if viewed upon from different perspectives, the government would take on different roles in varying situations. For example, the consuls who make up the monarchial division of the government, can be seen in some cases as the supreme power in the Roman political system. With great authority and control over many aspects of the government, it would seem as if they were unmatched in terms of political power. However, their rule often required the cooperation of both the people and the Senate, because without them they would lack sufficient power. Supplies, for instance, are necessary to armies, which the consuls controlled. But food, clothing and pay for the soldiers could not be provided unless agreed upon by the Senate. This gave the Senate power over the consuls, because if they chose to obstruct their plans, they could do so by being negligent. The Senate also had the power to send another commander out to take over another commander's position at any time, which could have been used to make sure that the consuls were doing their jobs correctly. (Republic, par. 5) This is another example of how the government system used checks and balances to maintain itself.

With the power that both the consuls and Senate controlled, it may be mistaken that the people had no influence on the other two branches. But, the Senate, even though it has a great deal of authority, still must pay attention to the matters of public concern. Even a single veto by one of the tribunes will render a resolution by the Senate ineffective. Therefore, the Senate would have to be mindful of the people and many times would fear them. (Republic, par. 6)

When looking at another form of government, the Ancient Japanese constitution was based on the idea of people living together harmoniously. Influenced heavily by Buddhist teachings, the Japanese were to sincerely reverence the three treasures: the Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood. Each aspect dealt with keeping order by means of harmony between people. From inferiors carrying out the imperial commands willingly, to the realization that all men have differing opinions of what is right and wrong, each of the ideas took into account the fact that men were not equal. However, it was the duty of each man to make an effort to avoid resentful feelings towards one another. Resentment, according to Japanese teachings, "...interferes with order, and is subversive of law..." (Japan, par. 15). Furthermore, the Japanese would reference heaven in order to emphasize the importance of following the Imperial commands.

"The lord is Heaven, the vassal is Earth. Heaven overspreads, and Earth upbears.