The Interdependance Between Methylphenidate (Ritalin) And Society

The amphetamine-like stimulant, methylphenidate, has been the source of a world of controversy in recent years. The drug, more commonly known as Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate, Attenda, or one of several other prescription names, exhibits numerous, deeply rooted connections to society. These ties to society are essential to understanding the drug, and the controversy surrounding it. As Anne Fausto-Sterling says in "Science Matters, Culture Matters," "The modern view that science and culture are separate and that hybrids do not exist lies at the heart of our communication problem" (Fausto-Sterling, 117). The more we look at methylphenidate and its alleged connections to society, the bolder these interrelationships become. From unlikely beginnings, the drug was born into a society that would develop new and different needs for it. In looking at multiple aspects of the drug such as history, chemistry, controversy, use and abuse, it will become apparent that methylphenidate's role in society influences the societal view of the drug, as mediated by several factors. Society's view of the drug, in turn, influences the role of the drug by directly changing how the drug is used, as the use of a drug is defined by the actions of individual members of society.

Early Uses

It was Jared Diamond's claim in Guns, Germs, and Steel that need stems from the creation of a technology (Diamond, 242). He goes on to discuss that at the time of a technological invention, society's need for that technology, assuming the society decides to adopt the invention, is undetermined. Cultures tend to find new and different uses for technologies, and methylphenidate is no exception to this trend.

Narcolepsy, chronic fatigue, and depression are all related in a more pertinent way than just being tied together symptomatically. Though they are all marked by exhaustion, sadness, weakness, and apathy, these diseases are similar in that they were the intended use of methylphenidate when it was first synthesized in 1944. Ciba Pharmaceutical Company, which today is known as the Swiss pharmaceutical company Novartus, coined the name Ritalin for their methylphenidate drug, and began marketing it for those uses in 1957 (Arria, Ritalin). It seems, however, that the facts to prove that society began by using methylphenidate to serve a different purpose than it does today, are much less surprising than the knowledge of what the drug's original function was. Who would guess that the same drug being poked fun at by today's media for turning America's hyperactive children into soulless work-robots was originally used to give energy and motivation to individuals plagued by exhaustion and sadness? One may ask if today's Ritalin is the same drug as the Ritalin of 1957.

The answer to such an inquiry would certainly be yes. The methylphenidate chemical is somewhat structurally similar to both amphetamine and methamphetamine. Some classify it as an amphetamine, but many more classify methylphenidate in the broader group, stimulant. Either way, it works like most amphetamines, stimulating the central nervous system. In patients of depression, narcolepsy, and chronic fatigue, methylphenidate is the perfect kick to get them going, which is why it is still prescribed for those uses. This explanation makes sense in explaining how Ritalin works to treat the disorders it was originally intended to treat. However, it also raises a bigger question than it answers. If a stimulant works like we think it would to treat a depressed patient, how does it serve its most common role in today's world, of sedating millions of patients with hyperactivity disorders? (Stoner, 1).

Current Uses

The reason that this question can be so perplexing is that an incorrect premise is an easy-to-miss way of ruining logical reasoning. It is not correct to claim that the patient is being sedated. With some research it becomes apparent that those with genuine ADD or ADHD are actually experiencing focus rather than sedation, while under the influence of methylphenidate. With that in mind, the mechanism by which methylphenidate works to cause focus is not entirely understood, though recent studies seem to be pointing in the same direction. To understand how methylphenidate is believed to work, it's necessary to know a bit about dopamine.

Dopamine is a naturally produced neurotransmitter: a chemical that transmits a signal across your brain. When dopamine reaches its neurotransmitter receptor protein, the receptor starts a chain of events in the synapse. Biochemist Bruce McConnell, Ph.D. explains,

A synapse is a junction with a gap between the dendrites of neurons, designed to permit communication between one neuron and another. If the neurons and their synapses are part of a dopamine system, the binding of dopamine to its receptor on the synapse surface results in conduction from the dendrite of one neuron to that of another. This process maintains communication between several neurons and consequent functioning of the dopamine system. Thus, the efficiency of nerve conduction depends on the number of receptors and the amount of dopamine between the synapses. For conduction, dopamine is secreted from one side of the synapse to bind to receptors on the other side across the gap. To regulate the amount of dopamine in this critical area, the molecule is re-inserted into the synapse body by a second set of receptors or "re-uptake" receptors. Any foreign molecule that binds more strongly to these receptors would block dopamine re-uptake and dopamine levels would increase (McConnell).

The binding of regular amounts of dopamine to functional receptors, as opposed to re-uptake receptors, in our bodies is essential to a number of processes. It is known that un-bonded, or Ð''free dopamine' is strongly connected to an emotional response of happiness or reward, which is why several chemicals that cause peaks in dopamine release are highly addictive. Cocaine, for instance, floods your brain with dopamine by latching onto the re-uptake receptors, preventing dopamine from bonding. This flood of dopamine creates an emotional connection to the act of ingesting the drug. After even one use it can become permanently engraved in one's mind that there is a strong connection between cocaine and happiness (Boeree, 1).

To shed some light on the connection between dopamine and methylphenidate, we turn now to an article published in the Journal of Neuroscience in 2001, this article suggests that methylphenidate increases dopamine levels in the brain in a much similar way to amphetamines. The study, titled "Therapeutic Doses of Oral Methylphenidate Significantly Increase Extracellular