United States Use And Exploitation Of Terrain And Geography In Combat Operations

One of the first considerations that all commanders must have when planning and conducting

combat operations throughout history are the geographical landscape of the battle space. Throughout

US history the geography that soldiers found themselves fighting in, has dictated not only the tactics,

but most often the final outcome of engagements. The US has found itself in almost every type of

terrain and climate zone, in almost every region of the globe. Initially the US only dealt with terrain in

the continental United States until the Spanish American War, after this the United States found itself

the major power in the Western Hemisphere. As the United States became a global power it found itself

sending troops throughout the world to protect its' interests.

From the American Revolution (1775-1783) until the Spanish American War (1898) the US Army in

its many incarnations found itself engaged in conflicts confined to Northern America. Initially these

conflicts focused their operations East of the Appalachian mountain chain. While seeking independence

The rebelling colonials used terrain to great affect against the more traditional forces of King James I,

who insisted on following Napoleonic tactics of

line formations to mass fire on the enemy. The

colonists instead chose to hide behind natural

terrain, i.e. trees, small depressions, and rock

formations, and trench works to counter the

superior numbers of the English army. The

most classic example of using terrain to

advantage at this time was the Battle of Bunker

Hill, in which a numerically inferior force of

colonials defeated a much larger force of

British regular army by attaining and holding higher ground (Breeds' Hill). 1 When the British attempted to climb the hill they were unable to use the tactics that they were drilled in, as the terrain

prevented large formations, or to form solid ranks. With the inability to adapt to the terrain used by the

enemy a larger force was ultimately defeated.2

In the US Civil War (1861-1865) the Union and Confederate forces used the same tactics as most

officers, on both sides, were taught at the US Military Academy at West Point. This war eventually was

a matter of taking and controlling of choke points. After numerous attempts by both sides to fight in a

conventional “field of battle” war вЂ" leaving civilian areas inviolate to combat, it was found that this had

lead to a virtual stalemate.3 Once Union forces

began to besiege and take over strategic cities of

the Confederacy the ability of the southern states

to sustain the war effort was severed. The seizure

of ; Chattanooga, TN , Atlanta, GA, and

Vicksburg. MS, caused the south to be unable to

ship troops and material by boat or train. Due to

the loss of these critical choke points the south

found itself in an untenable situation. For while

they had lost these cities, they also were blocked from international shipping routes due to the Union

naval blockade of all southern ports. The loss of movement coupled with the tactical and economic

strangulation at sea, the south could not sustain its' war effort. 4

The Spanish American War which lasted from April 1898 until December 1898 with the Treaty of

Paris, was the United States first conflicts that were

not on U.S. soil. The island nations of Cuba and the

Philippines would be where this war was fought. The

US was not prepared to conduct operations in these

tropical environments. The US Army wore heavy

cotton uniforms and due to the constraints of ships

available, the most powerful force the US could bring

to bear - the Calvary, could not bring horses except those of officers. The most famous action of this

war was “The Battle of San Juan Hill” outside Santiago, Cuba, was a near defeat for US forces. The

Spanish forces held higher ground and a reinforced position atop San Juan Hill with only 750 soldiers,

while US forces numbering near 5,000 strong used the limited advantage they had. The hill had a major

flaw in that the defensive walls were set back atop the hill plateau meaning US forces would not be

subject to directed enemy fire while climbing the majority of the hill.5 Most US casualties were not

from enemy fire, but from malaria and dysentery, as none