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Topic: Theories of Motivation

Motivation is a worldwide issue that has been one of the most frequently researched topics in the study of micro organizational behaviour (Barling & Loughlin, 1999). Western society often mistakenly considers motivation to be an innate attribute which implies that some people have it and others do not. A multitude of theories exist that describe the many ways individuals are motivated. According to Langton and Robbins each theory can be divided into two categories; needs theories and process theories (Langton & Robbins, 2007). Needs theories recognizes the different requirements that people have and how they can be applied to motivate the individual. Process theories include a broader portrayal which describes the procedures involved in motivating others. The purpose of this paper is to examine and compare popular process theories which are the expectancy theory and goal setting theory. Similarities and differences of these theories will be distinguished in order to illustrate just how complex motivation can be since many different human behavior variables must be considered.

Motivation, as defined by Merriam-Webster (2006-2007), is "something (as a need or desire) that causes a person to act". Alternatively, motivation may be defined as the process that accounts for an individual's intensity (how hard a person tries), direction, and persistence (how long a person can maintain his/her efforts) of effort toward reaching a goal (Langton & Robbins, 2007). With each differing definition of motivation, the identification of external and internal incentives and the individual's reaction to those incentives are common. Motivation theories have been hypothesized in order to understand factors which contribute to the development of positive and negative motivation in the workplace. Each theory introduces different factors associated to motivation and most act as an extension of the other.

Two theories commonly referred to today are known as the expectancy theory and goal setting theory. The expectancy theory suggests that individuals act depending upon their evaluation of whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome and whether that outcome is attractive (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 127)

There are three main relationships in the expectancy theory; expectancy, instrumentality and valence. (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 126) The individual's perception of how probable it is that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to good performance is known as expectancy (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p.127). An employee's expectancy is influences by the following: self-esteem, previous success, help from supervisors and subordinates, information, and proper materials and equipment (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 127). Instrumentality is the individuals perception of whether performing at a particular level will lead to attainment of a desired outcome (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 127) If an individual undertakes a specific task, the expectation is that that task will be recognized by someone in authority. High performance in such cases may not denote better outcome. In a study by Angus Reid Group, 44 percent of employees said that the workplace recognizes employees who excel at their job (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 128). Therefore one potential reason for low motivation could be the fact that the employee has done so much work, but no matter how much work they put in, it will not be acknowledged. Valence is the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs, and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 128). Not every organization has enough funds to reward each worker for good performance. In fact, most cannot personalize rewards which can make them appear to be less attractive in different cases and result in lower motivation amongst the workers. Therefore, incorporating a reward system can lose effect quickly if individual needs are not met.

A goal is "what an individual is trying to accomplish; it is the objective or aim of an action" (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 129) or "the end toward which effort is directed" as defined by Merriam-Webster (2006-2007). Based on what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended to reach a goal. The research on goal setting by Edwin Locke and his colleague Professor Gary Latham at the University of Toronto shows that intentions to work toward a goal are major source of work motivation (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 129).The goal setting theory according to Langton & Robbins motivates in four ways: goal direct attention, regulates effort, increases persistence, encourage the development of strategies' and action plans. In order for goals to be effective, they should be SMART; specific, measurable, attainable, result-orientated and time bound (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 129). Goals are important because they can increase performance, however if this performance is not consistently being reviewed it will likely diminish thus lowering motivation to complete a task. Careful attention must be made when setting goals. Self assigned goals are commonly most effective and lead to higher performance. Certainly, using rewards as incentives will affect whether goals are achieved as well.

The expectancy theory and goal-setting theory go hand in hand. In fact the type of goal which needs to be met will depend on what task needs to be done and giving feedback on that goal is a way of recognizing an individuals efforts. Achieving the goal and receiving recognition will thus result in satisfaction for both the individual and organization. Achieving a goal without recognition does not make that goal worth accomplishing. If there isn't a way in which the individual is acknowledged, they will likely lose motivation to complete the work.

Although there exists several similarities between the two theories, they differ in many ways. The expectancy model indicates that people need to perceive that the effort they exert will lead to a favourable performance evaluation and that the evaluation will lead to the rewards that they value. Setting a goal and accomplishing that goal will not necessarily lead to a favourable performance evaluation. It may not even lead towards rewards which are valued. When specific goals are being implemented the efforts may rely solely on self motivation. Moreover, a goal