Bureau of Fire and Protection

Abstract

This research paper will evaluate the value of conducting fire prevention inspections within the commercial occupancy and the associated reduction in the occurrence of fires. While the fire problem within the United States has experienced a decline in the number of fires and fire related injuries, the reality is that the nation continues to experience significant fire loss. With the introduction of more comprehensive codes and standards, the enforcement of fire regulations becomes paramount in maintaining a fire safe community. Typically, fire prevention enforcement is accomplished through annual fire inspections performed by the fire department. While personnel within the fire prevention division have primarily performed fire inspections, increasingly more and more departments are utilizing firefighters to perform fire inspections in order to meet the increasing demand for inspections. The ideal solution for determining the effectiveness of fire prevention activities would be to measure the number of fires abated by the efforts of fire prevention inspections. However, directly measuring what has not occurred is not a reasonable means of evaluating fire prevention effectiveness. A reasonable methodology is found in evaluating the reduction in the number of fires for a defined population through the efforts of fire prevention. This research demonstrates the positive impact that annual fire prevention inspections have on reducing the occurrence of fires in the commercial occupancy. As the demand for community dollars becomes increasingly more competitive, the need to justify and account for each dollar are substantially escalated, and the efforts of fire prevention are often the victim of budgetary reductions imposing an unintentional impact to the community.

1. INTRODUCTION

Background In 2011, fire departments in the United States responded to over 1.3 million calls for service with an estimated property loss of over 11.7 billion dollars (Karter, 2011). In the U.S., the delivery of fire protection services consists of two very different methods; shared between fire prevention and fire suppression. The fire prevention bureau is tasked with the objective of stopping fires before they occur, and reducing the effect of a fire should it occur. Conversely, fire suppression focuses on responding after the fire starts, and is concentrated on how quickly the fire is extinguished. "The United States has one of the premier firefighting forces in the world, but we need to focus more on prevention and less on putting out fires once they have started. Time line data show that while the situation in the U.S. has improved, we still lag behind other countries in the relative loss of life due to fires. Other countries have demonstrated that it is possible to save lives by expending more energy and funding on fire prevention and fire education" (National Fire Data Center, 1997, p. 17). In 1971, President Richard Nixon assembled a 20-member panel of fire prevention experts to analyze the growing fire problem in the United States. This panel also addressed the increasing needs throughout the American fire service. The panel became known as the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control. "Destructive fire takes a huge toll in lives, injuries, and property losses, yet there is no need to accept those losses with resignation. There are many measures -- often very simple precautions - 2 that can be taken to reduce those losses significantly" (The Report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, 1973, p. x). The resources dedicated to the prevention of fire in the United States are vastly different from other countries. "In the last decade, there has been a sea of change in the prevention strategy used by the British fire service that is just short of revolutionary. Since 2004, national legislation requires the fire brigades to engage in strong community safety programs as part of an overall strategy for improving fire safety. Every British firefighter is now expected to participate in prevention. A national-level Community Fire Safety Center was established in the Department of Communities and Local Government to be the focal point for developing national strategies, campaigns, and materials" (Schaenman, 2007, p. vi). The ideal matrix for evaluating the prevention of fires would be to measure the number of fires avoided through the efforts of fire prevention. However, measuring what has not occurred is not a reasonable means of measuring fire prevention effectiveness. The analysis of fire incidents for a defined population provides the first step in a reasonable measurement methodology for fire prevention effectiveness. Analyzing the data for a defined population provides characteristics that are observed for changes, as fire prevention resources are applied. In the case of evaluating fire prevention effectiveness in commercial occupancies, an alternative method of measurement will be used that will exclude residential single-family dwellings. The single-family dwelling is removed from the analysis, since typically within the Unites States they are not subject to annual fire prevention inspections. "The number of commercial fires per 100 commercial occupancies could be used as the measurement of prevention effectiveness" (Schaenman 3 & Swartz, 1974, p. 24). In addition, fire prevention evaluation utilizing a two-city approach, “Prevention Oriented” and “Non-Prevention Oriented”, in which two cities bearing similar characteristics, such as climatic conditions, the age of the buildings, and the type of fire protection services provided, can result in a measurement of prevention effectiveness. The effects of a fire to a business can be devastating, not only to the business affected by fire and water damage, but also to the community served by the business. The lasting effects can extend far beyond the mere fire-related damage that can affect the local economy and visual appearance of the neighborhood. Depending on the extent of damage, many employers simply cannot continue business operations. This, of course, can have a negative rippling effect on tax revenues generated for the local government, as well as the impact to surrounding property values. The ripple effect of a fire, like a pebble cast into a pond, can even affect outside companies that once supplied the business with goods and services. "Unwanted fires have a monetary impact on communities because fires remove businesses from the tax rolls while the damaged building is rebuilt and reconstructed. Statistics confirm that over 40% of the businesses that experience a fire never reopen because they lose their customer base" (Stookey, 2010, p. ix). Fires in buildings that serve more than one business, as seen in the case of multitenant strip malls or row buildings, can adversely affect adjoining business. These multitenant buildings frequently share attic spaces and utility chases that can communicate smoke and heat throughout the building from a fire occurring within just a single tenant space. Frequently, the tenant space undergoes remodeling in order to meet the needs of the individual business; this remodeling is referred to as tenant improvements (TI). TI’s 4 performed throughout the history of a building often divide and redefine the building well beyond the original design. Many historical and downtown buildings share a common "party" wall between buildings, whereby increasing the likelihood of communicating smoke and heat during a fire. The effects of installing business equipment or communications wiring can compromise the integrity of the required building fire protection features. Breaches in walls, improperly maintained fire protection equipment, and the obstruction of fire sprinkler heads can all contribute to the rapid development and spread of a fire throughout the building. In the event of a fire, the improper storage of combustible material can quickly overwhelm the design of an installed fire sprinkler system rendering it ineffective. To assist in combating the spread of fire, modern building codes require various construction and fire resistive features that help to separate, isolate, and compartmentalize tenable spaces in buildings. Ensuring that these construction elements remain intact after construction is completed is the job of the fire inspector. Buildings and facilities used for the assemblage of large groups of people require vigilance in maintaining the elements associated with fire and life safety. People gather into large assemblies and venues for many different reasons, whether it is for sporting events, social gatherings, or musical performances. Regardless of the event, these venues present an increased potential for panic in the case of an emergency. In the event of an emergency within the venue, the need for effective and efficient evacuation is critical to the survival of those in the building. The proper operation of all the elements within the egress system is paramount to safe and orderly evacuation. Modern building and fire codes help to combat the design and placement of occupancies that may otherwise pose an inherent hazard based upon a given business 5 operation. For example, the allowable height that a building may be constructed, along with the floor area is strictly regulated in order to help provide the minimum level of safety for the building occupants, as well as reducing the effects of fire. The location of a business that utilizes hazardous materials has restrictions with respect to its location to other occupancies. Beyond the safety of the occupants within the business, consideration must also be given for the safety of firefighters and first responders. The operational readiness of fire protection systems and building services, along with the identification, storage, and handling of specialty hazards is vital to effective and efficient incident mitigation. Fire inspections are not only limited to buildings that are occupied, but are also when the building is unoccupied. Fire inspections ensure that fire protection systems remain operational during times when the building is vacant. In addition to the protection of vacant buildings, fire prevention inspections can also help to combat vandalism and vagrancy. Modern fire codes require that the building owner maintain the fire protection system in an operational state, while also safeguarding entry from unauthorized persons. Annual fire inspections within unoccupied buildings help increase the safety of firefighters and first responders during an emergency by ensuring that minimum maintenance requirements are met. The International Fire Code (IFC) states specifically “fire alarm, sprinkler and standpipe systems shall be maintained in an operable condition at all times” ("IFC," 2006, para. 311.2.2). Performing regular fire prevention inspections can often identify potential hazards within a building or facility before it becomes an emergency. The fire inspector may identify potential threats regarding life safety and fire protection issues whereby bridging 6 the gap between the occurrence and the prevention of an incident. Due to various reasons, some jurisdictions simply do not perform fire inspections for the commercial occupancies within their jurisdiction, yet a fire inspector may ultimately be the first responder into the facility with the early identification and prevention of a fire or emergency. Statement of the problem A 1991 fire at One Meridian Plaza in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania quickly spread and consumed eight floors before finally being stopped by the automatic fire sprinkler system on the 30th floor. The fire cost the lives of three (3) firefighters and an estimated 100 million dollars in fire damage. At the time the building was constructed, automatic fire sprinklers were not required to be installed, however residents on the 30th floor insisted on the installation of fire sprinklers on that floor. "Designers of buildings generally give minimal attention to fire safety in the buildings they design. They are content, as are their clients, to meet the minimal safety standards of the local building code. Often both assume that the codes provide completely adequate measures rather than minimal ones. In other instances, building owners and occupants see fire as something which will never happen to them, as a risk they will tolerate because fire prevention measures can be costly, or as a risk adequately balanced by the provisions of a fire insurance policy" (The Report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, 1973, p. 2). Despite advances in the development of standards and regulations, the United States still lags behind many other industrialized nations concerning preserving life and property from the effects of fire. The process of protecting the community from the effects of fires often involves providing the necessary inspection, education, and 7 mitigation efforts to minimize or eliminate the threat of fire. "A cursory review of the 2001 United States fire loss statistics show that the nation continues to suffer property loss, income loss, injury, and deaths at a significant rate. In fact, the United States and Canada are still among the worst of all industrialized nationals at controlling losses" (Boyd, 2003, p. 11). The primary method of protecting the occupants from the effects of fire is achieved through the proper design of the egress systems from the building, and must provide an effective and efficient way of evacuating the building. The means of egress system is divided into three components; ∙ The exit access addresses that portion within the building leading to the exit. The exit access can include corridors, hallways and passageways. ∙ The exit includes the door and associated hardware including latches and release mechanisms that secure the building from the outside. ∙ The exit discharge provides the discernable path leading from the exit and extends to a public way considered “safe". (Fire Inspection & Code Enforcement, 1998) The inclusion of passive and active fire protection systems into the design of a building provides an increased level of protection that helps to separate a fire from the occupants. In order to meet the design criteria, the means of egress must provide a method for all occupants to reach a safe area (either inside the building or outside on the public way), utilizing methods that present a minimum level of risk or injury to the occupant. Historically, large loss of life incidents involved violations related to the means of egress elements and the associated evacuation from the building. The overcrowding of a 8 building places impractical demands on the egress system, often involving too few and too narrow exit doors for the number of occupants served. In addition, a frequent violation found in large loss of life incidents includes securing emergency exit doors shut, often with chains and padlocks. The common defense for barricading emergency exits is frequently cited as a security measure, in order to prevent unpaid patrons from gaining entry, as well as thwarting theft. The adherence to fundamental life safety provisions, despite greater cost or inconvenience, could have saved countless lives throughout history. The infamous Triangle Shirtwaist fire of March 25, 1911 resulted in the death of 146 workers because of locked and blocked exits. The legendary Cocoanut Grove Nightclub fire on November 28, 1942 was compounded because the occupancy load was exceeded by twice the number of occupants allowed. A 1991 fire located in a chicken processing plant in Hamlet, North Carolina killed 25 workers who were unable to escape because of locked exit doors. (U.S. Fire Administration, 1991) While the goal of the fire prevention bureau is the prevention of fires, it also supports the efforts of fire suppression should a fire occur. Fire prevention efforts help ensure that fire apparatus have clear unobstructed access to the building, and the installed fire protection equipment is maintained in a continuous state of readiness. In the case of arson, no amount of fire prevention will stop the fire, yet the effects of the fire can be greatly reduced with properly installed, inspected, and maintained fire protection systems. The Nation's history is littered with cases of incidents where a comprehensive fire inspection of the building might have significantly changed the outcome of the incident. Many of these incidents involved a large loss of life and property. During the time of the 9 incident, patron’s within these buildings often found locked, blocked, or chained exits along with overcrowding that either prevented or severely delayed exiting from the building. Fire inspections provide the critical link to ensure that basic life safety elements are in place and functioning as designed in the event of a fire or other emergency. Although many tragic events occurred prior to the creation of modern fire codes and ordinances, more recent events show that even with modern codes in place, the importance of a fire and life safety inspections is paramount. ∙ West Warwick, Rhode Island, February 20, 2003 a fire within a nightclub killed 100 people and injured almost 200. The fire started from pyrotechnics that ignited flammable insulation foam used for sound attenuation in the building. Exits were found locked and blocked. (Grosshandler, Bryner, Madrzykowski, & Kuntz, 2005) ∙ Hamlet, North Caroline, September 3, 1991 a fire within a food processing plant killed 25 people and injured 54. The fire started from a 25-foot long deep fryer, with many employees unable to escape because of locked exit door. (U.S. Fire Administration, 1991) ∙ New York, New York, March 25, 1990 a fire within an unlicensed "social club" killed 87 people. Although started by an act of arson, patrons were unable to escape because of inadequate exits. (Bukowski, n.d.). The likelihood that a competent fire inspector would have identified the violations should be considered. A fire inspection within any of these buildings may have identified and corrected these potentially life-threatening issues. Annual fire inspections provide a method to ensure that business operations continue to comply with the requirements set 10 forth within a given occupancy classification, as well as any operational permits for specific circumstances based on the business operation. The continued pursuit of annual fire prevention inspections provides the foundation for the inspector to identify changes in the business operation between inspections that may ultimately affect the occupancy classification, exiting requirements, and fire protection. Fire and life safety compliance is affected in varying degrees based upon the occupancy classification. Although the potential for loss of life is greater in some occupancy classifications compared to others, the reality is that all business occupancies are susceptible to the effects of fire. Purpose of the study The recurring fire problem throughout history demonstrates the public's inattention to fire safety even with the introduction of new codes and standards. This study was undertaken in order to determine if the delivery of annual fire inspections within commercial occupancies, including multi-family housing (apartments and condominiums) would result in reducing the occurrence of fires. In the business community, the occurrence of fires due to poor fire safety continues to flourish despite the advancement of various building and fire code regulations. Each tragic incident brings about changes designed to protect the citizens and the community against the effects of fire, yet fire continues to plague the nation with deaths, injuries and property loss. Without annual fire inspections, the occurrence and severity of fires will not decline despite the best intentions of adopted regulations. The identification of potentially hazardous conditions that may aid in the start or spread of a fire, as well as impending life threatening conditions can often be recognized and mitigated during the annual fire inspection. The fire inspector has the opportunity to educate business owners concerning 11 effective fire safety whereby avoiding business interruptions and associated losses. This research will help to demonstrate the positive impact that fire prevention inspections can have in reducing the occurrence of fire in the commercial occupancy. Potential significance The potential significance of this study supports the efforts of performing annual fire prevention inspections in reducing the occurrence and severity of fires. Although it is difficult to measure what has not occurred, the reduction in the number of commercial structure fires is often a direct result of effective fire prevention efforts. Furthermore, the sorting of individual occupancies will be addressed, and may prove beneficial in determining the level of risk associated with a given occupancy classification. Finally, the occupancy classification itself may serve as a means in determining the frequency of inspections as well as the priority. When fire prevention resources are increased, whether through the efforts of inspection, education, or enforcement, the business community should recognize a measurable reduction in the number of fires. Therefore, jurisdictions where fire inspections are performed on an annual basis should experience a lesser number of fires in comparison with those jurisdictions not conducting similar fire inspections. It is understood that not all fires are preventable, such as incidents of arson. However, even the effects of intentional and malicious fires can be significantly lessened with effective fire prevention. When all fire protection systems are in place, the removal of one element often does not compromise all fire protection within a given building. For example, fire resistive construction will still be in place even if the fire sprinkler system has been rendered inoperative. The annual fire inspection also verifies the operational 12 readiness of installed fire protection systems. The proper inspection, testing, and maintenance of these system is critical to their performance when an emergency arises. For this reason, when a fire occurs within the commercial occupancy, the characteristics of the fire typically responds to, and reflects the effects of the installed fire protection systems. For instance, when a fire occurs in a large storage warehouse utilizing rack storage, the fire is directed upward within designated flue spaces in order to activate the fire sprinkler system as soon as possible.